BASIC PRACTICES
OF RELIGION IN NIGERIA
PART 1: ISLAM
byJoseph Kenny, O.P.
DOMINICAN PUBLICATIONS
LAGOS
1998
1. Belief
The Qur'ān in many places speaks about what a Muslim must believe, but the verse most frequently quoted is 4:136: "O you who believe, believe in God, in his Messenger, and in the Book which he sent down to his Messenger as well as the books he sent down previously. Anyone who disbelieves in God, his angels, his messengers, and the Last Day has gone far astray."
These five elements of belief: 1) God, 2) his angels, 3) his messengers or prophets, 4) his books, and 5) the Last Day, [to which some add 6) God's decree or predestination (qadar)] are summarized by Muslim tradition in the two statements of the shahāda, or profession of faith:
Lā ilāha illā llāh, Muḥammadun rasūl Allāh.
Muslims explain, as does Muḥammad ibn-Yūsuf as-Sanūsī in his little catechism, al-`Aqīda aṣ-ṣughrā, that the statement "Muḥammad is the Messenger of God" includes belief in other prophets and angels and in the Last Day, because Muḥammad affirmed all these to be true. The following paragraphs are from chapter 1 of the Risāla of Ibn-abī-Zayd al-Qayrawānī:
1.1 God
Among obligatory matters of religion are faith from the heart and profession from the tongue that: Allāh is one God; there is no deity besides Him; there is none like Him and none equal to Him; He has no child nor parent nor woman companion nor associate. There is no beginning to His being first, and no end to His being last. No one can describe what He is like in His inner-being, nor can intellectuals sound out what pertains to Him; they can only speak about His signs, and cannot think of what His Essence is; they grasp His Knowledge only in so far as He wishes.
God's throne embraces the heavens and the earth, and taking care of these cause Him no trouble. He is Exalted, Mighty, Knowing, Aware, Disposing, Powerful, Hearing, Seeing, Exalted and Great. He is upon His glorious throne by His essence, yet is in every place by His knowledge. He created man, knows what he whispers inside himself, and is nearer to him than his jugular vein. He knows whenever a leaf falls, or a grain drops into the dark earth, or a fresh or dried fruit falls down; it is all in a clear book. He mounted the throne and took possession of power. He has the beautiful names and the exalted attributes. He is never without any of his attributes or names it is far beneath Him that any of his attributes should be created or any of his names should have come into being. He spoke to Moses with his Speech which is an attribute of His essence, not something created by Him. He appeared to the mountain, and it was crushed by His majesty.
1.2 The Qur'ān
The Qur'ān is the Speech of God. It is neither a created thing, such as can perish, nor an attribute of something created, such as can come to an end.
1.3 Determination (qadar)
Also a matter of faith is determination, whether of good things or bad, of sweet things or bitter; God our Lord has determined all this. The measures of things are from Him, and their origin is from His decree. He knows everything before it exists, and it comes into being according to His decree. Every word and every deed of His servants He has decreed and foreknown. "Does He not know, He who created, who is Unfathomable and All-aware?" (Q. 67:14). He makes err whomever he wishes, abandoning him by his justice; He guides whomever He wishes, giving Him success by his favour. He makes everything easily reach the pleasant or unpleasant outcome He knew and willed beforehand it is far beneath Him that there should be anything in His kingdom which He does not will, or that anything should not be in need of Him, or that anything should create something but He, the Lord of his servants, the Lord of their works, the Determiner of their movements and their deaths.
1.4 Messengers and Muḥammad
God sent messengers to men to take away any excuse from them. He sealed the offices of messenger, warner and prophet with Muḥammad His prophet, and made him the last of those sent, an announcer of good things, a warner, one calling to God by His permission, and an illuminating torch. He sent down to him His book of wisdom, by which He explained his solid religion and gave guidance onto the right path.
1.5 Resurrection and judgement
The hour is coming, without any doubt. God will raise up those who die, and they will return as he had made them.
For his believing servants, God multiplies their good works, wipes away the big sins they repent of, forgives their small sins if they have avoided big ones, and decides as He wishes the fate of those who do not repent of big sins.
God does not forgive making something an associate with Him in divinity (shirk), but forgives anything less than that to whom He wishes.
Those He will punish by fire God will bring out of it because of their faith, and bring them into Paradise. "Anyone who has done an atom's weight of good will see it" (Q. 99:7). Also because of the intercession of the Prophet God will bring out of the fire anyone of his people who is guilty of a big sin and the Prophet intercedes for him.
1.6 Reward and punishment
God has already created Paradise (janna) and prepared it as an eternal dwelling for his saints. He will honour them in it with the vision of his kind face. This is the Paradise from which God sent Adam, his prophet and vice-gerent, down to the earth, as he foreknew.
God created Hell fire, and prepared it as an eternal dwelling for those who do not believe in Him and are sceptical of His signs, books and messengers. He will screen such people from seeing Himself.
1.7 Concomitants of the resurrection
God will come on the day of resurrection with His angels in array to put peoples on display, together with their accounts, their punishments and their rewards.
The scales will be set up to weigh the works of men; whoever's balance is heavy has done well. Men will also be given sheets (ṣuḥuf) listing their deeds: Those who are given their scrolls in their right hands will have a light reckoning; those who are given their scrolls behind their backs shall face Hell fire.
The path (sirāṭ) is real. Men will pass over it at different speeds, according to the measure of their works, being saved from the fire of Hell. But some will fall into the fire because of their works. Another matter of faith is the basin (ḥawḍ) of the Messenger of God, from which his people drink. Someone who drinks from it will never thirst. Excluded from it will be anyone who substituted or changed [his beliefs].
1.8 Faith (īmān)
Faith is speech on the lips, faithfulness in the heart, and deeds in the bodily organs. It increases with the increase of works, and decreases with a decrease of works; thus there is a decrease or increase in faith according to works. The speech of faith is not perfect without works, and speech and works are not perfect without an intention; and speech, works and intention are not perfect without following the Sunna.
None of the People of the qibla are made unbelievers by committing a sin.
Martyrs are living with their Lord and enjoying blessing.
The spirits of those who possess happiness survive and enjoy delight until the day they are risen. The spirits of those who possess unhappiness are tormented until the day of judgement.
Believers are tested and questioned in their graves; God strengthens those who believe with a solid answer in this life and the next.
1.9 Angels
Men have guardian angels who record their deeds; none of these deeds escapes the knowledge of the Lord.
The angel of death, by the permission of the Lord, takes spirits.
1.10 Authorities
The best century is the century of those who saw the Messenger of God and believed in him. The next best is that of those who followed them, then that of those who followed these.
The best of the Companions are the orthodox, right-guided caliphs, first Abū-Bakr, then `Umar, then `Uthmān, then `Alī.
None of the companions of the Messenger are to be mentioned but with the highest respect, avoiding mention of the quarrels between them. They are the men most worthy to have the best explanation sought for what they did and the best opinion thought of their policies.
Obligatory too is obedience to the leaders (imāms) of Muslims, that is, those who have charge of their affairs and their learned men. Also obligatory is following the worthy scholars of early times, imitating them and begging pardon for them; also avoiding hypocrisy and argumentation about religion, and avoiding the innovations some people have produced.
2. Salāt prayer2.1 Purification before ṣalāt
After defecation
After defecating, a person should wash his private parts with water to remove the offensive matter. This process is called istinjā'. If no water is handy, the person may wipe himself with stones. If the third or last stone comes away clean the purification is sufficient. This dry cleansing is called istijmār.
Neither of these cleansing processes is a part of the minor or major ritual purifications, but either of them is obligatorily presupposed to the ritual purifications.
The minor purification (wuḍū')
The minor purification (wuḍū`) is obligatory when one has had a minor impurity (ḥadath). A minor impurity results from the passing from the private parts of urine, excrement, gas, distillation, or menorrhagia. It also results from any sexual activity or pleasure short of orgasm, and from loss of consciousness as happens in a deep sleep, fainting, intoxication, or an attack of insanity.
The water used for purification must be pure, as judged by its colour and smell.
The place for prayer and the person's clothes must also be pure, that is, free from filth (najāsa), which includes non-ritually slaughtered animals, their blood and once living by-products, puss, urine, excrement, any sexual liquid, vomited food, a rotten egg, etc. Prayer mats are disapproved of, unless they are necessary to prevent contact with filth or mud. Prayer mats, however, are commonly used for under one's knees, leaving the forehead and palms to touch the ground directly, outside the mat.
To do wuḍū', a person 1) washes his hands, preferably three times, 2) rinses his mouth, preferably three times, 3) takes water in his nose and blows it out, preferably three times, 4) washes his face from the top of the forehead to the bottom of the chin, and from ear to ear, preferably three times, 5) washes his right, then his left hand and arm up to the elbows, preferably three times, 6) rubs his scalp, running his fingers through his hair from front to back and forward again, 7) cleans his ears, using his index finger and thumb (but avoids the interior of the ear), and 8) washes his right, then his left foot up to his ankles, preferably three times. Note that it is not obligatory (farḍ), but only recommended (sunna) to do any operation three times; also steps 2, 3, and 7 are only sunnas.
In doing the wuḍū', a person is obliged to have the motive of gaining the favour of God, since He commanded him to do it, hoping at the same time that God will receive it, reward him, and purify him thereby from his sins. He should be aware that the wuḍū' he does is to prepare himself and make himself presentable to address his Lord, to stand before him carrying out his precepts, and to show him submission by bowing and prostrating. Therefore he should do wuḍū' with sureness and concern, since the perfection of any work is from the good intention in doing it.
The major purification (ghusl)
The major purification (ghusl) is obligatory after a major sexual defilement (janāba = orgasm or even copulation without ejaculation), or menstruation, or child-birth (when the bleeding stops). Ghusl is also obligatory on Fridays and on the two feasts.
To do ghusl, a person preferably begins by cleaning off the sexual material or blood from his body, and then doing wuḍū'. Then he 1) rubs his scalp with his wet hands, 2) pours three handfuls of water onto his head and washes it, 3) washes the right side of his body, then the left, until he has covered his whole body, and 4) washes the spots which may not have been touched, such as inside the navel, under the chin, inside the beard, the armpits, between the buttocks and upper thighs, behind the knees, and between the fingers.
In public bathing a Muslim is supposed to cover his private parts. Any time he does the ghusl he is cautioned to avoid stimulating his sex, since that would invalidate his ghusl and he would have to do it over.
Purification with sand or dust (tayammum)
When there is no water, the wuḍū' may be done by wiping with sand, but only one's face and arms. This same tayammum cleansing of one's face and arms also takes the place of ghusl when there is no water.
Wiping shoes
If someone washed his feet before putting on his shoes, he may, at the time of the next wuḍū', keep his shoes on and simply clean the outside of his shoes.
2.2 Clothing required
For a man to do ṣalāt, he must be covered at least between his navel and his knees. Moreover it is disapproved not to have a garment covering the shoulders as well. Yet he must not cover his hands, nose, or forehead.
A woman must wear a moderately thick (not a see-through) garment which reaches and covers the top of her feet, and a shawl over her head. Only her face and hands may and must be uncovered.
2.3 The times of ṣalāt, and differences of one to another
Ṣubḥ (morning)
This prayer is also called the prayer of dawn (fajr), or, by the Medinan people, "the middle prayer" (since they considered the day to begin with the maghrib prayer of the evening before). The time for this prayer begins with the moment brightness covers the sky from east to west, and ends with the bright radiance immediately preceding the appearance of the sun. In Nigeria this may take from one half hour to as much as an hour. It is preferable to do the prayer early within this time.
This prayer consists of two rak`as, with the Qur'ān recitations done aloud. The second recitation for each rak`a is selected preferably from sūras 49-79.
In the second rak`a of the ṣalāt of subḥ, after the Qur'ān recitations and before or during the bow (rukū`), the person recites the qunūt prayer, which is: "God, we seek your help and your forgiveness. We believe in you and trust in you. We submit ourselves to you and cast off and leave whoever disbelieves in you. O God, we worship you, we do ṣalāt and prostrate before you, we come eagerly to serve you, we hope for your mercy and fear your severe punishment; for your punishment certainly lays hold of unbelievers."
Ẓuhr (early afternoon)
The time for this prayer begins when the sun passes the middle of the sky, and ends when everything's shadow becomes as long as itself eastwards. If necessary, this prayer may be done during the time of `aṣr.
This prayer consists of four rak`as (two for a traveller), with silent Qur'ān recitations. The second recitation of each rak`a, as at ṣubḥ, is selected preferably from sūras 49-79.
`Aṣr (late afternoon)
The time of `aṣr begins with the end of the time of ẓuhr, and ends when everything's shadow is twice as long as itself eastwards. This is before the sun takes on the yellow glow of evening.
This prayer consists of four rak`as (two for a traveller), with silent Qur'ān recitations. The second recitation of each rak`a is selected preferably from sūras 92-114.
Maghrib (early evening)
The time of maghrib begins with the setting of the sun, and the ṣalāt should be done immediately. But for reason of necessity it may be done any time up until dawn.
This prayer consists of three rak`as, with the Qur'ān recitations of the first two rak`as done aloud, and the second recitation of each of these rak`as selected preferably from sūras 92-114. In the third rak`a only the opening sūra of the Qur'ān is recited, and that silently.
`Ishā` (late evening)
The time of `ishā' begins with the disappearance of twilight, or red light of the sun in the sky. This ṣalāt should be done during the first third of the night, but for reason of necessity it may be done any time before dawn.
This prayer consists of four rak`as (two for a traveller), with the Qur'ān recitations of the first two done aloud, and the others silently. The second recitation of each rak`a is selected preferably from sūras 80-92.
"Sleeping before this ṣalāt is disapproved; so also is talking after it for no utility."
2.4 The adhān (call for ṣalāt) and iqāma (call to begin ṣalāt)
For mosques and official gatherings the public call for prayer (adhān) by a mu'adhdhin is obligatory. It should be done when the time for prayer begins, except in the case of subḥ, when it may be done in the last sixth of the night, in order to allow people to get up and prepare.
The text of the adhān is:
| Allāhu akbar | God is greater! (twice) |
| Ashhadu anna lā ilāh illā llāh | I testify that there is no deity but God. |
| Ashhadu anna Muḥammadan rasūl Allāh. | I testify that Muḥammad is the Messenger of God. |
| Ḥayya `alā ṣ-ṣalāt | Come to do ṣalāt. (twice) |
| Ḥayya `alā l-falāḥ | Come to prosper. (twice) |
| As-ṣalātu khayrun min an-nawm | Ṣalāt is better than sleeping. (in the morning only) |
| Allāhu akbar | God is greater! (twice) |
| Lā ilāha illā llāh | There is no deity but God. |
Whether the adhān is made or not, another call to prayer, the iqāma, is made by the mu'adhdhin, or in private ṣalāt by every individual, just before the beginning of the prayer. It consists of the same formula as the adhān, but the only phrase said twice is the "Allāhu akbar" in nos. 1 and 7, and after no. 5 is said "Qad qāmat aṣ-ṣalāt" (It is time for prayer).
In the Friday afternoon ṣalāt, there is a sermon between the adhān and the iqāma; otherwise the iqāma follows the adhān as soon the individual or group is ready to pray.
2.5 How to do ṣalāt
| Each ṣalāt consists of a number of rak`as; we will describe a single rak`a: 1) The person stands, with hands raised, facing the qibla (direction of the Ka'ba in Mecca), and places himself in a state of consecration (iḥrām) by saying "Allāhu akbar". 2) He stands with arms lowered, and hands clasped (qabḍ) according to some, or hanging loose (sadl) according to others, and RECITES the opening sūra of the Qur'ān, without "Bi-smi llāhi r-raḥmān ir-raḥīm" at the beginning, but with "āmīn" at the end. If there is an imām, he alone recites the sūra, and the others answer "āmīn". Then he RECITES another sūra. 3) He bows down (rukū`), holding his hands on his knees, with his back level, SAYING "Allāhu akbar" while going down; he MAY SAY, while bent down, "Subhāna rabbī l-`aẓīm wa-bi-ḥamdi-hi" (With honour and praise to my great Lord). 4) While returning to a standing position, he SAYS "Sami`a llāhu li-man ḥamida-hu" (God hears those who praise him), and "Allāhumma rabba-nā la-ka l-ḥamd" (God our Lord, praise is yours). If there is an imān, he says the first part, and those following him answer the second part. 5) From a standing position, he lowers himself for the prostration (sujūd), while SAYING "Allāhu akbar". For the prostration he places his forehead, nose, and palms against the ground. The palms should be opposite the ears, facing the qibla. The feet should be up, with the bottoms of the toes touching the ground. During the prostration he MAY SAY: "Subḥāna-ka Rabbī ẓalamtu nafsī wa-`amaltu sū'an, fa-ghfir lī" (You are praiseworthy, my Lord; I have wronged myself and done evil; forgive me), or any other prayer for any length of time. 6) Moving to a sitting position (julūs), he SAYS "Allāhu akbar". He sits with his left thigh on the ground, and his left leg flattened, but with his right foot up and the bottoms of its toes against the ground. He puts his hands on his knees. 7) He immediately bends over for a second prostration (sujūd), while saying "Allāhu akbar". The second prostration is done as the first (n. 5). This action terminates the rak`a. After the final prostration of the first rak`a, the person stands up straightaway, without sitting, to do the second rak`a. The second rak`a is done exactly as the first, except that: 1) The second Qur'ān recitation is a different sūra from that recited in the first rak`a, but of the same length or shorter. 2) After the second prostration (sujūd - n.7), the person sits as before (n.6) for another julūs, and SAYS the tashahhud prayer. During this prayer he clenches the fingers of his right hand except for the index finger, which he keeps extended and waving. The tashahhud prayer is: "Salutations to God, pure works to God, performances of ṣalāt to God! Peace and the kindness and blessings of God be upon you, O Prophet; peace be upon us and on the worthy servants of God. I testify that there is no deity but God, him alone without associate. I testify that Muḥammad is his servant and Messenger." |
 
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2.6 Supererogatory prayer and ṣalāt
After each ṣalāt, while the person is sitting, he is recommended to practice a form of recollection (dhikr), usually using his rosary (subḥa or tasbīḥ), saying "Subḥāna llāh" (God is praiseworthy) thirty-three times, "al-ḥamdu li-llāhi" thirty-three times, and "Allāhu akbar" thirty-three times, rounding off the number to one hundred by saying "Lā ilāha illā llāh, waḥda-hu, lā sharīka la-hu, la-hu l-mulku, wa-la-hu l-ḥamdu, wa-huwa `alā kulli shay'in qadīr" (There is no deity but God, him alone without associate; his is the kingdom and the praise, and he is all powerful).
After the ṣalāt of ṣubḥ it is desirable to prolong the recollection asking for pardon, praising and petitioning until sunrise or near to it; but this is not obligatory.
Besides the dhikr, certain additional rak`as are recommended two before the ṣalāt of ṣubḥ (with the silent recitation of the opening sūra of the Qur'ān in each rak`a), four after the ṣalāt of ẓuhr, four before the ṣalāt of `aṣr, and two or more, up to six, after the ṣalāt of maghrib.
In the night, between the ṣalāt of `ishā' and dawn, but preferably towards the end of the night before dawn, it is recommended to do:
1) the shaf` (= "even number") rak`as, reciting in the first rak`a the opening sūra of the Qur'ān and, preferably, sūra 87, and in the second rak`a the opening sūra and, preferably, sūra 109. Any even number of rak`as may be added to these two for the shaf`.
2) the witr (= "uneven number"), which is one rak`a, in which are recited the opening sūra of the Qur'ān and sūras 112, 113, and 114.
Besides these rak`as, it is also recommended to do two rak`as any time one enters a mosque, before sitting down or doing the prescribed ṣalāt.
2.7 Miscellaneous questions
There are various provisions for what to do if someone has made a mistake in, or missed part of his purifications or ṣalāt, and what to do when one comes late for communal ṣalāt. It is permitted to join the ṣalāts of ẓuhr and `aṣr and of maghrib and `ishā' in certain circumstances (sometimes it is even obligatory), and to make a simplified type of ṣalāt when one is sick in bed. There is a way of dividing the ṣalāt between two groups when there is danger of an enemy attack. Also, in the recitation of the Qur'ān there are eleven different verses at which a prostration should be made.
2.8 Friday afternoon
The ṣalāt of jumu`a or Friday afternoon communal ṣalāt, takes the place of ẓuhr for that day. From the time the mu'adhdhins call the adhān it is obligatory to stop work or marketing and go to the mosque. The service begins with a sermon (khuṭba) by the imām, who at the end of the adhān rises from his seat on the elevated minbar, delivers the first part of the khuṭba, sits to pause in the middle, and stands to deliver the second part. The khuṭba traditionally must be in Arabic. In some places the imām speaks in the vernacular after reading an Arabic khuṭba, or even in place of an Arabic khuṭba.
After the khuṭba, the imām leads the ṣalāt, standing facing the miḥrāb, or niche at the centre of the qibla wall of the mosque. He says the iqāma and does two rak`as, reciting aloud in the first one sūras 1 and 2 (or a similar one and in the second one sūras 1 and 88 (or a similar one).
The obligation of taking part in the jumu`a ṣalāt binds those within the town or within three miles of it. Woman are not obliged, but if they take part they should stand behind the rows of men. Young women should not go out of their houses in order to attend the jumu`a ṣalāt.
The people should arrive early for the ṣalāt, after bathing and putting on perfume and their best clothes. They should leave the mosque after the ṣalāt, and not stay to do supererogatory ṣalāt.
2.9 Feast day ṣalāt at the prayer grounds
On both the minor feast (`īd al-fiṭr, at the end of Ramaḍān) and the major feast (`īd al-aḍḥā, at the time of the pilgrimage), the people should bathe, put on perfume and good clothes and leave after dawn to go to the prayer ground (muṣalla). The ṣalāt often starts around 8:00. On the way they should praise God aloud, saying "Allāhu akbar" and similar formulas. When the imām enters to begin the ṣalāt, they should be silent.
For the ṣalāt, the imām begins with saying "Allāhu akbar" seven times, then recites aloud sūra 1, and another, preferably 91, and completes the rak`a. He begins the second rak`a by saying "Allāhu akbar" six times (including the one for rising up), and recites sūra 1 and another, preferably 91. He ends the second rak`a with the tashahhud and "as-salāmu `alay-Kum".
Following the ṣalāt (the opposite to the procedure on Friday afternoon), the imām mounts the minbar, sits down, then stands to address the people. As on Friday, he delivers the khuṭba in two parts, and sits for the pause between them. When leaving, the people should follow a different road from that by which they came.
A peculiarity of the ordinary ṣalāt done on the major feast and the two days following, including the morning of the third day after the feast, is the addition of a praise formula said three times after each ṣalāt. The formula is "Allāhu akbar", to which may be added "lā ilāha illā llāh; Allāhu akbar, Allāhu akbar, li-l-lāhi l-ḥamd". The last phrase means "Praise be to God".
2.10 On an eclipse (khusūf)
For an eclipse of the sun, the people gather in the mosque, and do two rak`as with the imām, without an adhān or iqāma. The rak`as are done differently from usual, in that after the Qur'ān recitation and the bow (rukū`) there follows another Qur'ān recitation and bow before the prostrations. The Qur'ān recitations in each case are done silently, and consist of sūra 1 and a very long sūra, such as sūra 2. The rukū` which follows should be for as long a time as the recitation took. The tashahhud and "as-saIāmu `alay-kum" are said at the end of the second rak`a. After this ṣalāt an informal sermon is recommended. The ṣalāt for an eclipse of the sun may also be done at home.
For an eclipse of the moon there is no community ṣalāt, but only private ṣalāt, with the recitations done aloud, as is the rule for night ṣalāt. In each rak`a there is only one recitation and rukū`. The person may add pairs of rak`as until the eclipse has passed.
2.11 Ṣalāt to request water (istisqā')
In time of draught, special ṣalāt may be held at the prayer ground to request water. The imām goes there after sunrise, as on the two feasts, and does two rak`as with the people, reciting in the first rak`a sūras 1 and 87, and in the second sūras 1 and 91.
After the ṣalāt, the imām delivers a khuṭba and afterwards turns to the qibla and rearranges his outer garment All attend this ṣalāt in work clothes placing what was on his right shoulder on his left, and what was on his left shoulder on his right. After this action, which the people imitate while sitting down, he stays a while to pray.
2.12 Ṣalāt for burial (janāza):
Attendance at death and care for the dead body
It is recommended to say to the dying person "Lā ilāha illā llāh" so that he can repeat it and be assured of entering heaven on the day of resurrection. When he dies his eyes should be closed and his body turned on its right side facing the qibla. Shrieking and noisy manifestations of sorrow are forbidden.
The dead man should then be washed according to the procedure of wuḍū`, and ghusl, but without uncovering his private parts. The washing is done preferably by the dead person's spouse or close relative. If none of these is present, the washing must be done by someone of the same sex, unless the dead person is a small child. The body is then shrouded in an uneven number of cloths. Both in the washing and in the shrouding sweet smelling substances, like camphor and balm, are used. A martyr (shahīd) who died in battle, however, is neither washed nor shrouded, but buried as he is, since the blood he shed is an honour to him.
The ṣalāt over the bier
When the body is ready to be buried, it is brought to a convenient place and laid before the imām, who, -with the others who are present, stands facing the qibla and begins the ṣalāt. This ṣalāt does not consist of any rak`as, but of saying four times "Allāhu akbar", with the hands raised as at the "Allāhu akbar" of ihrām at the beginning of ordinary ṣalāt. After each "Allāhu akbar" the imām says intercessory prayers (du`ā'). In these intercessions he asks God to forgive the dead man his sins, and to make him happy until the day of resurrection, and afterwards in heaven. He also prays for the living relatives and those who are present at the funeral. After the fourth intercession he says "as-saIāmu `alay-kum".
Burial
The body is then brought to the grave, but is not to be followed with a censor, the way Christians do. It is better to walk in front of the bier in procession.
The grave trench should be dug perpendicular to the qibla. Preferably a niche should be dug out for the body under the rim of the grave on the qibla side wall of the trench. But if the ground is loose and likely to cave in, a crevice should be dug at the bottom of the trench to contain the body. The body should be put in lying on its right side, facing the qibla. Coffins are not used, but the crevice is covered with mats or shards before the dirt is poured in. Building monuments or plastering over graves is disapproved.
When the body is put in the grave, olibanum is poured on it, and the following prayer is said: "O God, our companion has taken his dwelling with you; he has left the world behind his back and needs what you have for him. O God, steady his speech when he answers the question of the two angels, and do not afflict him in the grave with what he cannot bear. Let him join his prophet Muḥammad."
3.1 Time of obligatory fast
Fasting (ṣiyām = the religious practice; ṣawm the physical act) is obligatory during the month of Ramaḍān. When the new moon of this month is sighted, the fast begins the next day. The evening the next new moon is sighted means that the fast is terminated, and the next day is the Feast of Breaking Fast (`īd al-fiṭr). Note that the actual sighting of the moon, not the calendar, sets the day for beginning and ending the fast. There is often disagreement about sighting the moon but in any case no one should fast more than thirty days.
The fasting begins with dawn (fajr, or saḥar), that is, the beginning of the time for the prayer of subḥ, and ends with the setting of the sun, that is, the beginning of the time for the prayer of maghrib. One must make an intention (niyya) of fasting for the fast to be valid, but one intention made at the beginning of Ramaḍān suffices. As for breaking the fast, it is recommended to take a small amount to eat and drink immediately after the sun sets, before doing the ṣalāt of maghrib, and to have a full meal after the ṣalāt. It is also recommended to have another meal (saḥūr) before dawn, or sometime late in the night.
3.2 What the fast consists of
The fast means refraining from: 1) taking any food or drink. [Modern authors generalize this prohibition to include taking anything into the internal parts of the body; thus they prohibit taking medicine, even by way of injection, receiving blood transfusions, inhaling by smoking, putting snuff in the nose, and putting the finger or any object into the rectum or vagina.] 2) having any sex, even by thinking if it results in so much as distillation.
Muslims are also urged to strive to avoid sins of every kind during Ramadān.
3.3 Who must fast, and what to do for breaking the fast
Those who need not fast or do anything in its place
Menstruating women, or those bleeding after childbirth are forbidden to fast (as well as to do ṣalāt). There is no obligation for a pregnant woman to fast when she needs to eat for the sake of the child she is carrying, nor for the sick, those engaged in jihād or some necessary strenuous task, children under the age of puberty, and the insane.
Those who need not fast, but must simply make it up
Those travelling (up to 48 miles, according to the ancient interpretation, the same distance required for shortening ṣalāt) are excused from fasting, but must make up the fast after Ramaḍān, fasting a day for each day they missed. If they can keep the fast while travelling, this is preferable.
Those who need not fast, but may make the minor atonement instead A nursing mother and a very old person are not obliged to fast, and in place of fasting are urged to give a food alms of one muddu of grain for each day they do not fast.
Those who must fast
A healthy adult Muslim with none of the above-mentioned excuses must fast during Ramaḍān. If he breaks his fast by mistake or forgetfulness, he must make up that day after Ramaḍān. If he breaks his fast deliberately, he must make up the fast and also make the major atonement (kaffāra) of giving a food alms of a muddu of grain to each of sixty destitute people. It he cannot do this, he may free a slave or fast two consecutive months.
Someone who breaks his fast deliberately or by mistake must continue fasting the rest of that day, even though he must make up the day. If after eating by mistake he eats again deliberately, he must make the major atonement as well as make up the fast. Yet someone who deliberately eats while making up his fast need not make an atonement.
3.4 Special Ramaḍān devotions
The tarāwīḥ ṣalāt
"Whoever rises for the tarāwīḥ ṣalāt on the nights of Ramaḍān with faith and in view of God's favour has all the sins he has committed forgiven, Moreover, someone who does only as much of this ṣalāt as is convenient for him can hope for God's favour and the atonement of his sins thereby."
This ṣalāt is done in the night any time after the ṣalāt of `ishā', privately or in common, and consists of an unspecified number (usually ten to twenty) of rak`as done in pairs (shaf`), with the final "as-salāmu `alay-kum" said after each pair, and concluded by a single (witr) rak`a. (See above, 2.6.)
The i`tikāf retreat
A retreat may be done any time of the year, except on either of the major feast days, but it is particularly recommended during Ramaḍān, and especially on the last ten days of that month. This is because it is believed that one of the last ten nights of Ramaḍān (no knows exactly which) is the Laylat al-qadar, the night of the divine decree (cf. Qur'ān, sūra 97), when the Qur'ān is supposed to have been revealed in one of its stages among the angels (It is supposed to have reached Muḥammad on the night before the 15th of Sha`bān, the eighth Arabic month); at this time God is believed to show particular favour to devout.
One may make a retreat for fewer than ten days, even for one day, but the days must be consecutive, and he must stay in the mosque night and day for the whole period, and not go out to visit the sick, to do ṣalāt over the dead, or to trade. He may go out only to take care of nature. He must fast during each day, and even at night must abstain from sex.
If the person breaks his fast or has sexual intercourse during a retreat which he has vowed, he must begin the retreat over. If, however, he gets sick, or if a woman begins menstruating during the retreat, they should go home, and when they get well resume the retreat where they left off.
The person should enter the mosque for retreat before sunset of the night he wishes to begin, and he may go off retreat after sunset on the last day of the retreat. But if the retreat is to end the evening before the Feast of Breaking Fast (`īd al-fiṭr), he should continue his retreat in the mosque until the time of the morning comes for him to go to the prayer grounds.
3.5 `Īd al-fitr observances
On the Feast of Breaking Fast the Muslim first does the ṣalāt of ṣubḥ, then at sunrise he should distribute a special zakāt, or religious alms, to the Muslim poor. This alms is obligatory for every Muslim, young or old, male or female, free or slave, but a master or of a household pays for his dependents. The alms consists of 4 muddus) of grain or the usual food staple of the place.
After distributing this head zakāt and having his breakfast, the Muslim goes to the prayer grounds for the ṣalāt of the feast, as is described in 2.9.
3.6 Expiatory fasts
Fasting for a certain length of time is one of the expiatory practices imposed for certain sins or mistakes. Some of these fasts are connected with the pilgrimage, and will be mentioned later on. Others have to do with breaking an oath, swearing not to intercourse with one's wife, and killing another Muslim by mistake.
3.7 Voluntary fasts
Both voluntary and expiatory fasts are forbidden on the two feasts. Otherwise, fasting is recommended during the whole months of Rajab (7th month) and Sha`bān (8th), which precede Ramadān (9th), for six days during Shawwāl (10th), on the 8th and 9th of Dhū-l-ḥijja (12th) for those who do not go on pilgrimage, or the 8th for those who are on pilgrimage (The 10th of this month is the Feast of Immolation), on the 10th day of Muḥarram (1st month), which is the fast of `Ashūrā, and three days of every other month.
4. Zakāt (religious tax or alms)
4.1 General distinctions
The head zakāt, which is given on the Feast of Breaking Fast, has been described above, 3.5. It is an undisputed sunna, whereas the zakāt paid by Muslims on their farm produce, livestock and money is obligatory (farḍ), and if not paid voluntarily it may be collected by force by the Muslim ruler. Not all Muslims must pay zakāt, but only those (whether adults or minors) who own the minimum taxable amount of each item; this is called the niṣāb.
Zakāt is to be paid (either directly or through the ruler who collects it) to eight categories of recipients (dependents of the giver are excluded), as listed in Qur'ān 9:60:
- the poor (faqīr), interpreted as Muslims who own less than the niṣāb.
- the destitute (miskīn), interpreted as Muslims who have not enough to feed themselves for one day;
- those who work in collecting, registering, or distributing zakāt;
- those whose hearts are to be won over", interpreted as non-Muslims who can be led to enter Islam as a result of this kindness, or recent converts who are not yet settled in their sense of belonging to the community;
- towards freeing a slave, interpreted as buying the freedom of a Muslim held as a slave;
- those who owe debts, interpreted as Muslims who owe legitimate debts which they cannot pay;
- towards the cause of God" (fī sabīl llāhi), interpreted as giving to those fighting in jihād, or for buying arms, and giving to mallams, imāms, and judges who do not receive a salary from the public treasury.
- travellers (ibn as-sabīl), interpreted as people who are stranded and have no means to get home, provided they cannot get a loan which they are able to repay when they reach home.
The interpretation of all these categories is the traditional one. Some modern Muslims stress contributing to Muslim education and social welfare.
According to early Muslim law, zakāt was the only tax which could justly be demanded from Muslims, since the ruler or the state had other sources of revenue, namely, a fifth of the spoils of jihād war (ghanīma), all abandoned land and properties (fay') confiscated through jihād, a fifth of the spoils taken from raids on the enemy outside (mukhtaṣṣ), tribute paid by the enemy under truce, and revenues from non-Muslim subjects (jizya and kharāj, to be discussed below). Because these revenues were not always forthcoming, Muslim governments later introduced other taxes on Muslims, relegating zakāt to the place a religious alms.
The term ṣadaqa is often used in the Qur'ān as a synonym with zakāt, but now its meaning is restricted to voluntary alms distinct from zakāt, and may be given to anyone in any amount or form.
4.2 Zakāt on farm produce
The niṣāb, or taxable amount, for any kind of farm produce is "five wasqs", which equals 1200 muddus, or approximately 150 kilograms. Most cereals are counted separately; if a man has not harvested the amount of a particular cereal he pays no zakāt on it. All kinds of beans are taken together as one crop. Most other crops are counted separately. There is no zakāt, however, on perishable fruits and vegetables.
4.3 Zakāt on livestock
The niṣāb for camels is five camels (or twenty-five, according another interpretation). For this number one sheep or goat in its second year is to be paid each year, The niṣāb for cattle is thirty, for which a zakāt of a calf of over two years old must be paid.
Sheep and goats are counted together, and the niṣāb is forty animals, for which the zakāt is one sheep or goat in its second year.
Those who own more animals than the niṣāb of any of these animals must pay a proportionately higher zakāt, which is worked out detail in law books.
4.4 Zakāt on money
The niṣāb for money is twenty dīnārs of gold or two hundred dirhams of silver. One dīnār is reckoned at about $30. The zakāt is two and one half percent yearly, and is levied on all the money a man possesses (not just his income), minus the amount of debts he owes. If he owes a money debt which, if paid, would reduce possessions below the level of the niṣāb he is not obliged to pay any zakāt. (Debts are considered only for the niṣāb of money, not for that of farm produce or livestock. Some authors consider money set aside for one's first pilgrimage exempt from zakāt.)
Other properties are not taxed, unless they are held as trading stock for immediate sale. In that case their value is computed with the money a person owns.
4.5 Jizya
Jizya is the tax paid by members of tolerated religions who are subject to Muslim rule. If they submitted peacefully to Muslim expansion, the peace treaty determines the amount, however small, they should nay. But if they were conquered by force, Mālikī law holds that each free adult male must pay annually four dīnārs of gold or forty dirhams of silver, while this amount should be reduced for poor men. [Aṭ-Ṭurṭūshī (d. 1126) gives variant estimates of this amount.]
Besides the head tax, members of tolerated religions who travel from one Muslim province to another for trading must pay 10% of their profits. So also, traders coming from non-Muslim lands must pay 10% of their profits, or even a greater amount if this agreed upon.
4.6 Kharāj
The word kharāj historically was sometimes used interchangeably with jizya. But it was soon used technically to mean a tax on lands taken over by Muslim expansion. These lands are considered in Mālikī law to be public domain (fay'), held in trust (waqf) by the state for the profit of the Muslim community, or specifically, the enrichment of its public treasury (bayt al-māl). The land was leased out to be farmed either by Muslims or by the non-Muslim former owners, either of whom had to pay a kharāj tax on the land to the public treasury.
In the beginning, Muslims were exempt from this tax, but with so many people becoming Muslim to escape having to pay it, and the state revenues greatly decreasing, the kharāj was extended to include Muslims on the basis that the land was public domain.
The amount of kharāj to be paid has been left to some discretion. It can be an amount of money determined by the ruler, proportionate to the size of the plot of land, or a certain percentage of the harvest (sometimes between one half and one quarter), or a fixed amount of money, goods or produce to be paid by a certain district.
In Nigeria the areas conquered Usman Dan Fodio were regarded by the Sokoto rulers is lands belonging to the Muslim state, and therefore all the inhabitants, Muslim or not, had to pay kharāj. At present, this is the chief government revenue in the north, while the giving of zakāt is left to the individual, and jizya does not exist.
4.7 Expiatory alms
To make expiation for certain crimes or mistakes, paying a certain alms is one of the practices a man may choose. See above, 3.6.
4.8 Voluntary alms
On ṣadaqa, see above, 4.1.
5. Pilgrimage5.1 The obligation