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METAPHYSICS
CONTENTS & STUDY QUESTIONS

Thomas Aquinas began his teaching of Theology by writing a commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard. Later he wrote his own Summa Theologiae to present theology in a better pedagogical order. After writing his Commentary on the Metaphysics of Aristotle, a work as disordered as the Sentences, he never had a chance to write his own book on Metaphysics, putting the material in a better order. Here, I have assembled the more important parts of his Commentary along with exerpts from many of his other works, in an attempt to present Thomas' thought on Metaphysics in a pedagogical order.

Another phase of the project, to provide an interface between Thomas and modern science and thought, is largely provided by Benedict Ashley's The Way towards Wisdom.

Joseph Kenny, O.P.

CHAPTER 1:
THE NEED AND NATURE OF METAPHYSICS:
A DIALECTICAL PROBE

1-1 Introductory
Pre-scientific metaphysics of common sense
The value of knowledge
Certainty
Universality
Liberal character
Difficulties

1-2 Thomas' Prologue
Questions:

Give three reasons why metaphysics governs all other human sciences.
Give three reasons why metaphysics treats of the most intelligible objects.
What is the subject of metaphysics?
Why is this science called metaphysics and divine science?
Metaphysics governs all other human sciences
because all are ordered to man's perfection, and one must govern this order
as man's concupiscible and irascible powers are ruled by reason
as in society those of superior intelligence should be the guides of others
Metaphysics treats of the most intelligible objects:
because it considers first causes, which are the grounds of certitude
because it considers the most universal and common principles
because it considers things that do not require matter to exist.

These three are inter-related, so that Metaphysics considers all of them, but none of these are the subject of Metaphysics. Its subject is real being in the broadest sense, which includes material and immaterial being. [Every science has a subject, whose properties are demonstrated through principles.]

So this science is called divine science or theology because it considers immaterial substances including God. It is called metaphysics because it considers what does not require physical matter to exist.

1-3 Thomas on Aristotle's Introduction
Questions:

Give three reasons why do people naturally desire to know. I, 1, 2-4
Show, by way of comparison, that wisdom deals with causes. I, 1, 35
Describe wisdom in terms of six ideas people have of it. I, 2, 36-51
Why is this science called speculative? I, 3, 52-57
Why is it called most liberal? I , 3, 58-59
Why is it called supra-human? I, 3, 60-63
Why is it called most honorable? I, 3, 64-65
Discuss the relationship between wonder and wisdom I, 3, 66-68

Chapter 2:
THE SUBJECT OF METAPHYSICS

2-1 Dialectical probe: The search for truth

First Philosophy treats the universal truth of reality. II, 1, 273
The pursuit of truth is easy, as seen in three ways II, 1, 275-277
The pursuit of truth is difficult. Why? II, 1, 278-286
How is the pursuit of truth a cooperative project? II, 1, 287-288
How is First Philosophy concerned with truth more than other sciences? II, 2, 290-298
Different attitudes towards learning II, 5, 331-334
Procedure in learning, and the kind of certitude to expect II 5, 335-337

2-2 Dialectical probe: methodology
Why we must start with questions and disputes and proceed dialectically III, 1, 338-345
Some of these questions:

1. Does this science make use of all four causes? III, 2, 346
2. Does it consider both principles of substance and principles of knowledge? III, 2, 347
3. Is its subject all substances, or do different sciences consider different substances? III, 2, 348
4. Is it distinct from other sciences? III, 2, 349
5. Are there immaterial substances, and of what kind? III, 2, 350-351
6. Does it consider accidents/ properties of substance? III, 2, 352
7. How does it differ from logic in considering these things? II, 2, 353
8. Does it consider how these accidents are inter-related? III, 2, 354
9. How are substances to be analyzed, into elements or into genera? III, 3, 355
10. Is there an immaterial principle? Is it one or many III, 3, 357-359
11. Is individuality distinct from the specific form? III, 3, 360
12. Are the principles of corruptible and incorruptible things the same or different? III, 3, 362
13. Are "one" and "being" the same as or distinct from specific natures? III, 3, 363
Answers:
1. Whether one science can consider many causes III, 4, 369, 384-385
2. Whether the science of substance is also that of first principles III, 5, 387, 392
3& 6. Whether it considers all substances as well as accidents III, 6, 393, 398, 399, 402
5. Are there substances besides sensible ones? III, 7, 403-404, 422
9. What is the difference between genera and elements? III, 8, 423, 431, 442
10. Is there anything separate from sensible things which is their principle? III, 9, 443, 455
11. Is there one or many forms and principles of things? III 10, 456 (end), 460 (beg), 465
12. Are the principles of corruptible and incorruptible things the same? III, 11, 487
13. Are "one" and "being" substances or principles of things? III, 12, 488, 501
More questions:
Are numbers and magnitudes substances or principles of things? III, 13, 502, 514
Are forms substances or principles of things? III, 14, 515, 518
Are principles of substances actual or potential? III, 15, 519, 522
Are principles of substances universal or singular? III, 15, 523, 528

2-3 Determination of subject of this science
It is being and its properties IV, 1, 530-533
It applies analogically to the different categories IV 1, 534-547
Metaphysics also treats of "being-one" IV 2, 548-563
And also of "one-many" "negation-privation" etc. IV 3, 564-569
General reasons for that (difference between Metaphysics & dialectics & sophistry) IV 4, 570-577
This science considers the first principles of demonstration IV 5, 588-595
Particularly the very first principle, that of contradiction IV 6, 596-608

2-4 Place of Metaphysics among the sciences
Thomas on Boethius' De Trinitate (Boethius).
Contrast Maritain & Gilson.

2-5 Other remarks on the subject and place of metaphysics

CHAPTER 3:
BASIC NOTIONS

3-1 Analogy
Proportion:

measurable:
quantity
Cause to effect <
Likeness
Non-measurable effect not commensurate to cause
Proportionality:
Proper
Improper/metaphorical proportionality - poetic, not scientific

Analogy between creatures & God: (Analogy)

3-2 Causes: a survey
Describe the four causes, and list three things that characterize final cause. I, 4, 70-71

Opinions of those who gave only MATERIAL cause:

Four characteristics of matter I, 4, 74
If there is only material cause, then no generation or corruption I, 4, 75
Detailed opinions on material cause modern examples: still with "atoms & space" or "density & thinness" (matter/energy)

Opinions on EFFICIENT cause:

intellect or love I, 5, 100-102
potency/act: Nemo dat quod non habet.
living: part moves part (note role of form)
Like makes like, but not "one from one" (al-Farabi, Ibn-Sina)
Limited being can't produce universal effect.
"Agency" of immanent activity - really formal (contra Maritain)

FORM;

Hidden principles: numbers I, 7, 121-122
Unitarians I, 9, 135-150 (New Age)
Plato and form I, 10, 151-170

All of them weak on FINAL cause I, 11, 177-179
Final:

regularity, predictability
First in intention last in execution.

3-3 Other texts on causality

3-4 More on causes, and other definitions
Principle V 1, 751-761
Cause: the four V 2, 763-776
Four modes of causes V 3, 777-794

Prior/subsequent = singular/generic (proximate/remote #788)
Proper/accidental
Simple/composite
All of these x potential/accidental = 12 modes in total
Element V 4, 595-807
Nature V 5, 808-826
Necessary V 6, 827-841
Kinds of unity V 7, 848-865
How they interrelate V 8, 866-869, 876-884
Kinds of being: 3 ways per accidens V 9, 885-888
Ten ways per se V 9, 889-894
Series: per se
Accidental
Logical being V 9, 895-896
By potency and act V 9, 897
Kinds of substance V 10, 898-905
The same, per accidens & per se V 11, 908-911
Diverse V 12, 913-915
Different V 12, 916-917
Similar V 12, 918-920
Opposite V 12, 922-924
Contrary V 12, 925-930
Diverse in species V 12, 931-935
Prior & posterior V 13, 936-953
Potency & impotency V 14, 954-976
Quantity V 15, 977-986
Quality V 16, 987-1000
Relation V 17, 1001-1032
Perfect V 18, 1033-1043
Term V 19, 1044-1049
Secundum quid & Per se V 19, 1050-1061
Position V 20, 1058-1061
Habit V 20, 1062-1084
Parts V 21, 1085-1097
Whole in general V 21, 1098-1127
Genus V 22, 1119-1127
False V 22, 1128-1138
Accident 11-39-1143

CHAPTER 4:
THE PRECISE NATURE OF BEING

4-1 Real, per se being
How metaphysics differs from other sciences in treating of being VI 1, 1144-1170

It does not study accidental being VI 2

The fact of chance & its compatibility with providence VI 3

167-8 Chance:

apart from proper cause
Note determination of Ibn-Sina & Suarez - only reducible to Providence orchestrating diverse proper causes
Aristotle: Physics II, 199a34199b5: Failure/ mistake because of impediment rooted in matter (CG II 39 #3; cf II 30)
Nature & hypothetical necessity

Metaphysics does not study the "being" of propositions VI 4; Post An 1, 20, 5

4-2 Substance
Metaphysics is about substance VII 1, 1247-1259
Four meanings of substance VII 2, 1270-1275

Essence = quiddity = ouvsi,a
Abstract universal genus
First substance = existent = to. o;n
Not in another = subsistent/suppositum u`pokei,menon
Maybe another in it = hypostasis (Person = hypostasis of rational nature)
Is not matter alone.
Distinction between abstract essence and essence VII, 5, 1378-1380
Objections to substance:
Phenomenology
Empericism - Hume
New Age
"Quantum physics" as some understand it matter & energy

4-3 Principles of substance
Substance is matter, form, composite VIII 1, 1686-1688, 1697, 1708-1711, 1727
Matter VIII, 8, 1743-1744, 1760-1764

4-4 Quiddity, essence, subsistence, suppositum, person

4-5 Synthesis
Thomas Aquinas: De ente et essentia

CHAPTER 5:
BEING AS DIVIDED BY POTENCY AND ACT

5-1 Preliminaries

5-2 Potency and act
Different kinds of potency IX 1, 1768-1771, 1773-1784

real potency
possibility =
non-contradiction denied by Ibn-Rushd
& efficient & final cause
Subjects of potency IX 2, 1786-1794
Two objections IX 3, 1795-1814
How potency precedes or follows act IX 4, 1815-1822
Kinds of act IX 5, 1823-1831
Act = perfection:
Form
Activity
Becoming - motion
Existence
Analogous act:
movement - learning
Perfection - knowledge
Potency proximate to act IX 6, 1832-1843
Priority of act IX 7, 1844-1855
Priority of potency IX 8, 1856-1866
In incorruptible things IX 9, 1867-1873
Act better in good IX 10, 1883-1887
Truth & falsehood IX 11, 1895-1919

CHAPTER 6:
TRANSCENDENTALS

6-1 Transcendentals
Relation of the Transcendentals to Being
being:

special manner by itself = substance
common mode:
absolutely:
affirmatively essence: THING
Negatively undividedness: ONE
Relatively:
distinction SOMETHING
Correspondence to all:
appetites: GOOD
Minds: TRUE

6-2 "One" & its concomitants
Kinds of one X 1, 1920-1936

Transcendental=being; Predicamental = quantity (confusion in Plato, Grail, Islam etc.)
One as measure X 2, 1937-1949
Being & one X 3, 1974-1982
One as opposed to many. Same, similar... X 4, 1983-2022
Contrary X 5, 2024-2026
Other kinds of opposition X 6, 2040-2053, 2058
Equal, large, small X 7, 2066-2072
Many & few, one & many X 8, 2081-2083, 2087-2096
Multiplicity:
Essential not contrary to one, but one is principle of number
Metaphysical contrary to one
Intermediates of contraries X 9, 2098-2099
Corruptible & incorruptible generically different X 12, 2137

6-3 More on transcendentals
The Transcendental One
The One and the Many
Unity and Number
Transcendental Truth
True as opposed to false
The Transcendental Good
The Relation of the Good to Being

Good - analogical - where no will there is determination.
Impressed in nature
CG III, 2, #8:
contemplation
Play:
end
Instrument
Itch - sensory reaction
Good is diffusive:
hypothetically (against Ibn-Sina)
As final cause (De Veritate q21 a1 ad4)
Common good
The Presence of Evil in Things
Evil
= privation
Subject: power, basically the substance
The Cause of Evil
Cause:
material
Agent
End
Not proper cause, but accidental (analogical)
Non-being:
outside subject possibility
Privation in subject:
lack of anything whatsoever as 3rd principle of natural change
Lack of due perfection (property) = evil:
culpae
poenae
Moral evil - Is contrary because related to an opposing end:
essentially good
Deviating from order of reason
God and Evil - God allows evil...
Beauty - Summa Th. I q39 a8:
Integrity/unity
Harmony/truth
Clarity/goodness

CHAPTER 7:
INCORRUPTIBLE SUBSTANCES

7-1 Separate substances, and attributes of God
Existence XII 5, 2489
Perfection of God XII 8, 2536-2544
God's knowledge XII 11, 2611-2616
Good of universe XII 12, 2629-2637, 2663

7-2 Existence of God and his governance of world
Knowledge of existence of God:

common sense
Analytical
Revelation (ST I q1 a1)
Opinions:
Self-evident
Impossible - as any certitude or demonstration - Idealists
Ontological (Reith 173) - Anselm
From start of universe - Mutakallimun
Dependence not merely for hudth (becoming) but also wujd (existence).
Eternity of world possible.
Real distinction between essence & existence.
Contingency proved by experience
Potency/act limitation
Limitation in potential principle not in power and will of God (contra Descartes)